Chronic illness and psychological problems in emerging adults: Moderation by perceived parental distress.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of the current study was to better understand if perceived parental distress moderates the effects of having a chronic illness and poor physical quality of life on psychological problems reported by emerging adults. METHODS: Participants consisted of 538 college-attending emerging adults (53.5% women; 46.5% men). Participants completed an online study that was composed of questions regarding chronic illness, the World Health Organization Quality of Life - Brief, the Adult Self-Report scale, and the Adult Behavior Checklist. RESULTS: In both emerging adult women and men, endorsing a chronic illness is significantly associated with psychological problems. Psychological problems in both emerging adult women and men were significantly predicted by the three-way interaction between endorsing a chronic illness, physical quality of life, and perceived maternal distress. Specifically, increased perceived maternal distress was associated with higher psychological problems in both emerging adult women and men with chronic illnesses and low physical quality of life. DISCUSSION: For emerging adult women and men with a chronic illness, higher perceived maternal distress was associated with poorer psychological adjustment, while lower perceived maternal distress was associated with better psychological adjustment.

Chronic illness and psychopathology in emerging adults: Moderation by parent-child relationship quality.

OBJECTIVE: The current study aimed to better understand how parent-child relationships might moderate the effects of the presence and severity (as measured by physical quality of life) of a chronic illness on psychological problems in emerging adulthood. METHODS: The participants included 538 emerging adults (53.5% women) with a mean age of 19.04. The participants completed an online study including chronic illness questions, the World Health Organization Quality of Life-Brief, the Parental Environment Questionnaire, and the Adult Self-Report scale. RESULTS: Endorsing a health condition significantly associated with psychological problems in emerging adult men. The three-way interaction between endorsing a health condition, physical quality of life, and maternal parent-child relationship quality significantly predicted psychological problems in emerging adult men and women. Specifically, higher maternal relationship quality was associated with a weaker relation between psychological problems and having a health condition with a low physical quality of life. DISCUSSION: The emerging adults who reported the most psychological problems also reported having a health condition, low physical quality of life, and low maternal relationship quality, highlighting that the combination of these variables predicted the highest rate of psychological problems. A low maternal relationship quality contributes to poor psychological adjustment while a high maternal relationship quality contributes to good psychological adjustment.

Emerging Adult Risky Sexual Behavior: The Influence of Perceived Parental Religiosity and Perceived Parent-Child Relationship Quality in the USA.

In the southern USA, where religiosity is higher than in other parts of the country, many researchers have questioned if the religiosity of parents plays a role in emerging adults' risky sexual behavior (RSB). Specifically, research suggests that certain aspects of religiosity (i.e., conservatism) are especially detrimental when examining RSB. In the current study, college students (N = 585, 65.5% women, 69.2% White, 25.0% Black) completed the following self-report measures: the Stearns-McKinney Assessment of Religious Traits - Short Form, the Parental Environment Questionnaire, and the Student Sexual Risks Scale. Results of path analysis (reported statistics have p < .05) indicated that perceived maternal relationship quality had a significant negative association with RSB in emerging adult women, ß = -.27, and men, ß = -.20; perceived paternal relationship quality also associated negatively with RSB in women, ß = -.12, and men, ß = -.20. Of all the parental religiosity variables, only perceived maternal conservatism had a significant effect, where it demonstrated a positive association with RSB in women, ß = .34, and men, ß = -.20. These results suggest that perceived parent-child relationship quality and perceived maternal conservative religiosity influence emerging adult RSB. This study presents novel insight into the specific aspects of perceived parental religiosity that, at least in the current study, are found to influence RSB.

Parental Discipline During Emerging Adulthood: A Person-Centered Approach.

Although most parental discipline research examines the effects of discipline in children and adolescents, recent research has demonstrated that emerging adults continue to receive parental discipline. Importantly, a newly validated instrument for assessing discipline specifically during emerging adulthood has been created. Scales from this instrument include maternal and paternal approval, disappointment, and abuse, and these scales were associated with other parenting behaviors and psychological outcomes during emerging adulthood. However, a person-centered approach has not been conducted with this instrument. Given that discipline occurs at an idiographic level and that group norms inform such behaviors, a person-centered approach would identify highly informative emerging adult profiles based on patterns of discipline they receive from their parents. Thus, the current study utilized latent profile analysis (LPA) of 1110 participants attending a Southern United States university to identify emerging adult discipline profiles. These groups were then associated with parental and emerging adult psychological problems to gain an understanding of how these factors relate to different patterns of discipline across gender. Results best supported four profiles labeled as approving, distant, disappointed, and abusive. These groups reported increasingly higher parental and personal psychological problems across approving, distant, disappointed, and abusive profiles. Gender moderated some of these effects. Implications and future directions are discussed.

Interpersonal Competence: A Mediator Between ODD Problems and Parent-Child Relationship Discord.

A central requirement of Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD) consists of difficulties with interpersonal relationships. As emerging adults' transition into adulthood and seek more autonomy from parents, it is important to examine how ODD problems and parent-child discord are indirectly associated through interpersonal competencies. The current study examined the indirect effects between ODD problems in emerging adults and parent-child discord through multiple interpersonal competencies as well as the additional differences among parent-child gender dyads. Emerging adults (N = 599 individuals aged 18 to 25 years; M = 19.60, SD = 1.40; 68% females) were recruited via an online research platform and completed online survey measures of ODD problems, parent-child relationship discord, and interpersonal competence. Indirect effects were significant for the mother-daughter dyad only. Additional results, limitations, and implications are discussed.

Family Functioning Profiles in Emerging Adults: Associations with Personal and Parental Psychological Problems.

Although recent research has examined family profiles in younger children, emerging adults have not been examined as extensively despite evidence that families continue to be important to emerging adults. The current study examined family functioning profiles and associated psychological problems of both offspring and parents from the perspective of 585 college-attending emerging adults. Results supported six profiles where lower functioning groups generally had more psychological problems relative to higher functioning groups and with specific maternal and paternal differences. The current study advances family functioning research by demonstrating that family profiles can be identified and associated with psychological problems for both parents and emerging adults.

Emerging Adult Antisocial Problems and Psychological and Physical Maltreatment: Moderation by Other Parent-Child Relationship Quality.

Current research supports that both psychological/physical maltreatment by parents and parent-child relationship quality strongly correlate with children's psychopathology. Less research has examined the interaction effects among these variables, especially in emerging adults. The current study analyzed the association between psychological/physical maltreatment experienced from one parent and antisocial behaviors displayed by emerging adults, as well as the moderating effect of the other parent's parent-child relationship quality. This sample included 1,364 emerging adults (953 females, 411 males) who reported on past year psychological and physical maltreatment and parent-child relationship quality. Results indicated that, when considered together, parent-child relationship quality was a stronger predictor of emerging antisocial problems than maltreatment, with the exception of the father-son dyad. Additionally, overall findings suggested that having a high-quality relationship with one caregiver was associated with lower antisocial problems in the context of high maltreatment from the other caregiver. Nevertheless, there were deviations from this norm. Unexpectedly, the lowest antisocial problems in females were associated with higher levels of paternal physical maltreatment combined with higher levels of maternal parent-child relationship quality. Moreover, the combination of low paternal psychological maltreatment and low maternal relationship quality was associated with particularly high antisocial problems in males. It is important to note the findings in the context of this sample of college students, who could be considered an advantaged group relative to some others. Since our sample might not represent our entire population of interest, which is emerging adults, it is important for future studies to examine these relationships across more diverse emerging adults. Practical implications are discussed.

Emerging Adult Report of Childhood Maltreatment and Related Facets of Impulsivity.

Childhood maltreatment is related to a host of outcomes, many of which may be partially explained by the transdiagnostic factor of impulsivity. The research linking maltreatment to impulsivity is well supported. However, research differentiating between emotional and physical maltreatment and impulsivity is lacking, particularly with regard to facets of trait impulsivity. Thus, the current study examined the links between childhood emotional and physical maltreatment and current impulsivity traits of positive and negative urgency, lack of perseverance, lack of premeditation, and sensation seeking in emerging adults. Furthermore, effects of maltreatment are known to differ by the gender of the parent and the gender of the child. Thus, differences between parent-emerging adult child gender dyads were also examined. Results suggested both physical and emotional maltreatment were associated with negative urgency across the parent-child gender dyads. Emotional maltreatment and physical maltreatment differed in relation to impulsivity facet across parent and child gender. Results contribute to a knowledge base to use in future exploration of emotional and physical maltreatment outcomes and targets of intervention.

Evaluating comforting messages with the sentiment analysis and social cognition engine.

The current study extended the literature on social support by examining the differences in the word content of supportive messages using a free online linguistic tool called sentiment analysis and social cognition engine (SEANCE) across multiple levels. Participants created supportive messages in response to vignettes of distressed individuals, which were evaluated with SEANCE for word content and coded by researchers for person-centeredness. Word content was significantly different by level of person-centeredness, biological sex of support provider, and the recipient of support. The results suggest that tools such as SEANCE may help to identify levels of person-centeredness beyond that of a trained coder and that future research should examine the individual differences of support provider and recipient when evaluating message content.

Maltreatment and Affective and Behavioral Problems in Emerging Adults With and Without Oppositional Defiant Disorder Symptoms: Mediation by Parent-Child Relationship Quality.

The current study examined the indirect effect of maternal and paternal emotional and physical maltreatment on affective and behavioral symptoms of oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) through parent-child relationship quality; gender and overall ODD symptoms were examined as moderators. Participants included 2,362 emerging adults who completed questionnaires about parental emotional and physical maltreatment, parent-child relationship quality, and affective and behavioral ODD symptoms. These characteristics were compared across parent and child gender (i.e., maternal and paternal effects as well as male and female differences) as well as participants reporting high and low ODD symptoms. In the low ODD group, indirect effects of emotional maltreatment occurred in all parent-child dyads except the mother-son dyad, whereas in the high ODD group, indirect effects occurred only in the father-son dyad. Indirect effects of physical maltreatment occurred only in the father-son dyad in the low ODD group, and only in the mother-daughter dyad on behavioral ODD symptoms in the high ODD group. The results suggest that specific parent-child gender dyads respond differently, warranting further investigation of gender effects. Moreover, emerging adults in the low ODD symptoms group demonstrated a positive association between parental maltreatment and ODD symptoms and a negative association between parent-child relationship quality and ODD symptoms, whereas those high in the high ODD symptoms group did not demonstrate these associations. That is, emerging adults reporting high ODD symptoms demonstrated no relationship between their ODD symptoms and harsh parenting, suggesting an ineffective coercive process.

Parental Psychopathology and Oppositional Defiant Problems in Emerging Adults: Moderated Mediation by Temperament and Gender.

Previous studies have indicated that prenatal maternal depressive symptoms predicted toddler temperament, which led to childhood irritability, an important component to ODD problems. In addition, children with ODD problems continue to have difficulties as they transition into emerging adulthood. The current study examined whether present-day emerging adult temperament mediated the relationship between perceived parental psychopathology (e.g., depressive, anxiety, and antisocial problems) and emerging adult ODD problems (e.g., affective and behavioral components). Further, emerging adult and parent gender was examined as a moderator (i.e., moderated mediation). The current study asked a sample of 973 emerging adults to report upon the psychological problems of their parents as well as their own temperament and ODD problems. Negative affect and effortful control mediated the relationship between maternal anxiety problems and female affective and behavioral ODD problems. Similarly, effortful control mediated the relationship between paternal antisocial problems and male behavioral ODD problems. Significant indirect effects occurred for the mother-daughter and father-son dyads only, suggesting moderated mediation by child and parent gender. Thus, temperament may be one process which explains the relationship between parental psychopathology and emerging adult ODD problems, and this process differed by parent and child gender.

Effect of Parental Corporal Punishment on Endorsement of Its Use: Moderated Mediation by Parent Gender and Attitudes Toward Corporal Punishment.

Previous research has examined the factors that place an individual at a risk of using harsh discipline on children. Chief among these predictors is an individual's own experience of corporal punishment, as well as favorable attitudes toward corporal punishment as a parenting strategy. However, few studies have examined the relationships among these variables in emerging adults. Thus, the current study advanced this area of research by examining how attitudes toward corporal punishment mediated the association between the experience of corporal punishment within the past year and the endorsement of corporal punishment as a future parenting strategy of choice among emerging adults when presented with a vignette. In addition, the current study examined gender differences among study variables, including participants' parental disciplinary practices and whether participants were more accepting of using corporal punishment against a boy or girl in a hypothetical vignette. Participants (N = 393; Mage = 19.21) completed an online survey that included a hypothetical vignette depicting child misbehavior. Results from the current study suggested the experience of corporal punishment from mothers appeared to have more of an influence on the decision to endorse corporal punishment in the vignette for both emerging adult males and females. The findings from the current study highlight the importance of reducing the use of corporal punishment as a discipline strategy, as the experience of corporal punishment appears to shape attitudes which may favor future use of the practice.

Stress-Buffering Role of Social Support during COVID-19.

In order to reduce the high infection rate of COVID-19, individuals began to engage in self-isolation amid a time of uncertainty and worry. Given that social support can be protective against the negative effects of distress on mental and physical health, the lack of support may negatively impact individuals during their self-isolation. Thus, the current study examined the role of self-isolation on feelings of stress, the perception and reception of social support, and mental health problems during the COVID-19 pandemic. A sample of 405 college students were asked to report on the amount of self-isolation in which they were engaging, worry about COVID-19, psychological health, and received and perceived social support. Results indicated that when the length of time in self-isolation was taken into account, perceived social support buffered the connection between worry about COVID-19 and psychological health. These results indicate that social support, worry about COVID-19, and self-isolation may influence individuals' psychological health during times of stress.

Con el fin de disminuir el alto índice de contagio de la COVID-19, las personas comenzaron a autoaislarse en medio de un momento de incertidumbre y preocupación. Teniendo en cuenta que el apoyo social puede ser protector contra los efectos negativos del distrés en la salud mental y física, la falta de apoyo puede afectar negativamente a las personas durante su autoaislamiento. Por lo tanto, el presente estudio analizó el papel que desempeña el autoaislamiento en los sentimientos de estrés, la percepción y la recepción de apoyo social y los problemas de salud mental durante la pandemia de la COVID-19. Se solicitó a una muestra de 405 estudiantes universitarios que informen sobre la cantidad de autoaislamiento que estaban haciendo, las preocupaciones acerca de la COVID-19, la salud psicológica y el apoyo social recibido y percibido. Los resultados indicaron que cuando se tuvo en cuenta el periodo de tiempo en autoaislamiento, el apoyo social percibido amortiguó la conexión entre la preocupación acerca de la COVID-19 y la salud psicológica. Estos resultados indican que el apoyo social, la preocupación acerca de la COVID-19 y el autoaislamiento pueden influir en la salud psicológica de las personas durante momentos de estrés.

Appraisal and social support as moderators between stress and physical and psychological quality of life.

One proposed mechanism of social support is the facilitation of primary and secondary reappraisal of stressful situations. The current study examined the expansion of the original stress-buffering hypothesis to include primary or secondary appraisal in an emerging adult population (N = 854) on physical and psychological health outcomes. The additional moderating effects of gender also were examined. Perceived social support (by the Multidimensional Survey of Perceived Social Support) significantly buffered the effects of stress from negative events (by the Risky Behaviour and Stressful Events Scale) on physical and psychological health (by the World Health Organizations Quality of Life Instrument) for females only. Neither primary nor secondary appraisal (by the Stress Appraisal Measure) acted as additional buffers for male or females. Social support may be a more salient buffer for females. Reappraisal mechanisms may have another role in the buffering pathways. Further implications and limitations were discussed.

Links between parental socialization of coping on affect: Mediation by emotion regulation and social exclusion.

INTRODUCTION: Parental socialization of coping strategies is associated with various emotion regulation difficulties and continues to impact individuals during emerging adulthood. As emerging adults' transition into adulthood, they experience social stressors that put their emotion regulation skills to the test. METHODS: The current study examined the associations of the parental socialization of coping strategies and emotion regulation difficulties with emerging adult positive and negative affect in response to social exclusion. Emerging adults (N = 402, 206 males and 196 females) from a large Southern university in the United States were recruited for the study. Participants completed survey measures of parental socialization of coping, positive and negative affect, and emotion regulation difficulties before engaging in a social exclusion task called Cyberball. After the task, participants completed a measure of positive and negative affect again. RESULTS: Primary parental socialization of coping was associated with emotion regulation difficulties, both of which were associated with affect after the exclusion task, thus supporting the indirect effect of parental coping socialization on affect through a preexisting variable (i.e., emotion regulation) and a causal manipulation (i.e., exclusion task). CONCLUSIONS: The impact of parental suggestions of coping strategies and emotion regulation difficulties during emerging adulthood indicate that parents continue to be an important point of intervention as individuals' transition to adulthood.

Temperament and Affective and Behavioral ODD Problems in Emerging Adults: Moderation by Gender and Perceived Parental Psychopathology.

Recent research has indicated that ODD problems persist into emerging adulthood, although mechanisms influencing ODD during emerging adulthood remain relatively unknown. Additionally, temperament and parental psychopathology both are implicated in the development of childhood ODD. Thus, the current study examined how perceived parental (i.e., maternal and paternal) psychopathology (i.e., anxiety, depressive, and antisocial problems) moderated the relationship between temperament (i.e., effortful control, negative affect, and surgency) and ODD problems (i.e., affective and behavioral) in a sample of 599 emerging adults who were instructed to complete questionnaires based on their current perceptions. Results indicated that perceived parental anxiety and antisocial problems moderated the relationship between two of the temperament variables (i.e., negative affect and effortful control) and both types of ODD problems. Moreover, these results were further moderated by participant gender. Finally, perceived parental depressive problems served as a moderator for affective problems only. Overall, results suggest that similar associations found regarding childhood ODD may be implicated when examining emerging adults, and gender moderates these associations.

Relationships Among Emerging Adult Psychological Problems, Maltreatment, and Parental Psychopathology: Moderation by Parent-Child Relationship Quality.

Current research supports clear relationships between parental psychopathology, parental maltreatment, and emerging adult child psychopathology. Less research has examined how the role of the parent-child relationship influences these existing associations. The current study tested two models that examined the moderating effect of parent-child relationship quality on parental psychopathology and emerging adult mental health as well as the effect on parental maltreatment and emerging adult mental health. It was expected that high parent-child relationship quality would buffer against the negative effects of parental psychopathology and maltreatment while enhancing the effects of functional parenting characteristics. Participants included 1,452 emerging adults, predominantly Caucasian (73.3%) college students who completed surveys on their mental health, recent experienced maltreatment, and their parents' mental health problems. Results suggested lowest rates of mental health problems for emerging adults were associated with higher parent-child relationship quality and lower parental psychological problems, whereas negative outcomes were associated with higher parental psychopathology, regardless of parent-child relationship quality. Additionally, physical maltreatment was associated with lower rates of mental health concerns in the context of higher mother-daughter relationship quality. Results emphasize the continuing impact of the parent-child relationship, particularly the mother-daughter relationship, on emerging adults' mental health. Moreover, the current study demonstrates the continuing influence of parents on their emerging adult children.

Las investigaciones actuales respaldan las relaciones claras entre la psicopatología parental, el maltrato parental y la psicopatología del niño adulto emergente. Pocas investigaciones han analizado cómo el rol de la relación entre padres e hijos influye en estas asociaciones existentes. El presente estudio evaluó dos modelos que analizaron el efecto moderador de la calidad de la relación entre padres e hijos en la psicopatología parental y la salud mental del adulto emergente, así como el efecto en el maltrato parental y la salud mental del adulto emergente. Se esperaba que una alta calidad de la relación entre padres e hijos amortiguara los efectos negativos del maltrato y la psicopatología parental y a su vez mejorara los efectos de las características funcionales de crianza. Los participantes fueron 1452 estudiantes universitarios adultos emergentes predominantemente caucásicos (73,3%) que contestaron encuestas sobre su salud mental, el maltrato sufrido recientemente y los problemas de salud mental de sus padres. Los resultados sugirieron que los índices más bajos de problemas de salud mental en los adultos emergentes estuvieron asociados con una mejor calidad de la relación entre padres e hijos y menos problemas psicológicos de los padres, mientras que los resultados negativos estuvieron asociados con una psicopatología parental más alta, independientemente de la calidad de la relación entre padres e hijos. Además, el maltrato físico estuvo asociado con índices más bajos de preocupaciones sobre la salud mental en el contexto de una mejor calidad de la relación entre madre e hija. Los resultados destacan el efecto permanente de la relación entre padres e hijos, particularmente de la relación entre madre e hija, en la salud mental de los adultos emergentes. Además, el presente estudio demuestra la influencia continua de los padres en sus hijos adultos emergentes.

Perceived Parental Anxiety and Depressive Problems and Emerging Adult Oppositional Defiant Problems: Moderated Mediation by Psychological and Physical Maltreatment and Gender.

Recent studies have argued that Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD) problems continue into emerging adulthood; however, few studies have examined ODD problems in this population. Moreover, previous studies have found that corporal punishment mediated the relationship between maternal anxiety/depression and child ODD problems in young children and that parental psychopathology is likely to affect child ODD. This study examined how maternal as well as paternal maltreatment (i.e., psychological and physical) mediated the relationship between parental anxiety/depressive problems and emerging adult ODD problems (i.e., irritability and defiance). Furthermore, child and parent gender were examined as moderators (i.e., moderated mediation). Participants included 1,012 emerging adults who completed questionnaires about parental psychological and physical maltreatment, parental anxiety and depression, and affective and behavioral ODD symptoms. Results suggested that mediation occurred for the father-daughter dyad along the perceived paternal depressive problems â†’ psychological and physical maltreatment â†’ irritability paths and for the mother-son dyad along the perceived maternal depressive and anxiety problems â†’ psychological maltreatment â†’ defiance paths. Given that mediation occurred for only these gender dyads, moderated mediation was suggested.

Estudios recientes han argumentado que los problemas del Trastorno negativista desafiante (ODD por sus siglas en inglés) continúan en la adultez emergente; sin embargo, son pocos los estudios que han examinado problemas de ODD en esta población. Más aun, estudios previos han encontrado que el castigo corporal mediaba la relación entre la ansiedad/depresión maternal y los problemas infantiles de ODD en niños jóvenes y que la psicopatología parental probablemente afecta el ODD del niño. Este estudio examina cómo el maltrato maternal, así como el paternal (es decir, psicológico y físico) mediaron la relación entre problemas parentales de ansiedad/depresión y problemas de ODD en adultos emergentes (es decir, irritabilidad y desafío). Además, se examinó el género de niños y padres como moderadores (es decir, mediación moderada). Los participantes incluyeron a 1012 adultos emergentes que llenaron cuestionarios acerca del maltrato parental psicológico y físico, ansiedad y depresión parentales, y síntomas afectivos y conductuales de ODD. Los resultados sugirieron que la mediación ocurre con la díada padre-hijo por las vías de problemas paternales percibidos de depresión → maltrato psicológico y físico → irritabilidad, y con la díada madre-hijo por las vías de problemas maternales percibidos de depresión y ansiedad → maltrato psicológico → desafío. Dado que la mediación solo ocurrió para estas díadas de género, se sugirió una mediación moderada.

Mother-Father Dyad Conflict Strategy Clusters: Implications for Emerging Adults.

Research has examined the different parenting styles that are present during emerging adulthood; however, less is known about potential parental conflict strategies that emerging adults may be experiencing during this developmental time period. Conflict strategies are conceptualized in the current study as parents' efforts to regulate, correct, or enforce a consequence in response to their emerging adult child's behavior. Previous research on discipline during childhood and adolescence has suggested the use of harsh discipline (e.g., use of physical force) leads to negative outcomes for children. Despite evidence linking harsh discipline methods to harmful outcomes in various developmental periods and suggested influence of parents in emerging adulthood, very little is known about how parents handle conflict with their emerging adult children. Thus, the present study investigated parental conflict strategies and mental health outcomes of emerging adults. Results revealed a significant parent-child gender interaction for non-violent strategies and psychological aggression. Moreover, results indicated that emerging adult children of parents who utilize similar levels of aggressive methods reported greater psychological problems. The findings from the current study underscore parents' use of conflict strategies when interacting with their emerging adult children, and further emphasize the importance of future research in this area.

Concordance between parents in offspring maltreatment as perceived by emerging adult college students.

BACKGROUND: Many studies have examined the link between childhood maltreatment and outcomes, but few have focused on children who experience maltreatment from both their mothers and fathers and how they might differ from children who experience maltreatment from one parent only. Even fewer studies have used dyadic concordance types (e.g., pairs of parents engaging in a behavior or not) to examine how offspring maltreatment impacts offspring psychological problems. OBJECTIVE: The current study examined the effects of adult offspring physical and psychological maltreatment as perpetrated by mothers only, fathers only, both parents, and neither parent over the past year on emerging adult college student psychological problems while examining parent and adult offspring gender effects. PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING: Participants included 2374 emerging adult college students at a Southern university. METHODS: Participants reported on their parents' past year use of physical assault and psychological aggression against them as well as their own psychological problems. RESULTS: Results suggest that the highest frequency of reported maltreatment occurred from both parents and not one parent only. Males reported higher maltreatment than females except when examining psychological aggression from mothers only, where females reported double the rate as males. Generally, emerging adult college students who reported physical assault or psychological aggression by both parents also reported the highest depressive, anxiety, and antisocial problems. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, results generally indicated that maltreatment experienced from both parents was associated with more severe psychological outcomes than if experienced from only one parent.